Akihiro Osawa

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The tale of filial piety known as "A Spurting Spring of Dancing Carp" 湧泉躍鯉 that appears in the Twenty-Four Tales of Final Piety 二十四孝 and elsewhere recounts the story of the filial son Jiang Shi 姜詩 and his aged mother, and how Jiang Shi's wife Mrs. Pang 龐氏 cared filially for her mother-in-law even though she had been driven from her home. The denouement of "a spurting spring of dancing carp" is unusual, however, in that it is the result of the filial care provided by the wife, Mrs. Pang. By way of contrast, all that Jiang Shi could claim to have done was simply to have abandoned his wife due to his mother's thirst and nothing more. Tracing the content of "A Spurting Spring of Dancing Carp", one learns that the wife's filial care has been denigrated and there has been a move to rewrite the tale of the wife as filial mate into a story of the son's filial piety. It appears that two distinct types of tales, that of the miracle of carp appearing in a spring, which was originally seen in the tale of "Shi-you's filial piety'' 士遊孝淳 found in the Dong-guan han-ji 東觀漢記, the Shui-jing zhu 水經注, and the Hua-yang guo zhi 華陽國志, and that of the tormented wife driven from her home, as seen in the tale of "Pang who was filial to her mother-in-law" 龐行孝姑(also in the Hua-yang guo zhi), were transmitted separately. It also appears that they were joined later in the "Tales of Virtuous Women" 列女傳 in the History of the Later Han 後漢書. This was a tale centering on Mrs. Pang and therefore appropriate to the "Tales of Virtuous Women", but the fact that Jiang Shi had been appointed to office during the Six-Dynasties period was esteemed, and thus he came to be exalted as a filial son. The name of Jiang Shi grew to have a distinct life of its own, growing out from under the shadow of the tale of the "Filial wife Mrs. Pang". As the name Jiang Shi came to be synonymous with filial piety, his action, i.e., driving his wife out of the house for the sake of his mother, came to be equated with filial piety, and Jiang Shi became linked with the tale of the banished wife 出妻, with which his story was recounted. However, when the Twenty-four Tales of Final Piety were recorded in writing during the Yuan dynasty for purposes of edification in the Xiao-Xin 孝行錄 and the A Collection of Verse on the Twenty-four Tales of Final Piety 二十四孝詩選, the motif of the tormented wife driven from her home no longer appeared, and then in late Ming one even sees the filial piety of the son and his wife being emphasized. One witnesses in this manner the denigration of the wife's status in the sphere of literature for moral edification, but, on the other hand, there also existed those tales like the "Record of Dancing Carp" 躍鯉記, in which the tribulations of Mrs. Pang and the love between her and her child An-an 安安 are depicted. To the extent that filial piety can be recognized in the Jiang Shi who nevertheless submissively drove out his wife, and who would not recount his pain at the death of his child when he sought to draw water, he serves neither as a figure of a husband nor of a father. It is the wife, whose husband had been usurped by her mother-in-law, who possesses the son, and in this act, which compensates for the denial of the emotional bond between husband and wife in the name of filial piety, the unity of mother and child is elevated in the name of filiality.

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Geographical works in the latter part of the Ming period took a new turn, with some being quite different from the traditional style of geographical works. After the Jiajing period, the problem caused by the Mongol hordes and Japanese pirates raised some serious questions. These questions led some intellectuals to realize that strategy and geography were closely related. Furthermore, in their attempt to reorganize the structure of local administration in order to meet the demands of the times, they wanted to understand the regions from the viewpoint of local administration. Because of the above-mentioned military tensions and the intention to reform local administration to perform more practical functions, a new point of view developed which was critical of the literary geographical content of the DaMingyitongzhi 大明一統志 that was inconsistent with the actual conditions of local administration. The opinions of the grain transport and the salt administrations were compiled from various memorials and anthologies. These compilations also included the opinions of those associated with border defence and coastal defence. It was from these compilations that the geographical works related to statecraft studies developed. After the second decade of the Wanli reign, due to the influence of the Guangyutu 広輿図, HuangMingyutu 皇明輿図, and DaMingguanzhidaquan 大明官制大全, the new geographical works, which drew information from compilations of practical works and political writings, entered a new phase distinct from that covered by traditional literary geographical works. The recognition of practical usefulness in relation to the activities of the local administrations, for example, administrative comments on the regions, and border tensions at that time, together created the concept of statecraft within geographical studies. As a result of this concept practical geographic works, based on actual regions, were compiled. These works were characteristic of the late Ming period. However in the Quing period, more purely literary studies regained ascendancy denying full development to whole genre of practical geographic works, and a whole series of these practical works went out of existence.

Zhaoyuzhi by Gu Yanwu 顧炎武, is a general geographical work, characteristic of the late Ming period. Although commonly regarded as a by-product of Tianxiajunguolibingshu 天下郡國利病書, it was indeed compiled independently. In contrast to statements found in literary geographical encyclopedic works such as DaMingyitongzhi 大明一統志, we can find statements relating to practical statecraft in some works from the late Ming period. Zhaoyuzhi icludes statements from the late Ming period works that emerged as a result of the criticism against the DaMingyitongzhi. Investigating the information in Zhaoyuzhi regarding comments on the local administrations and the number of administrative units in each county, it can be said that Gu Yanwu used material included in Huiji-yutubeikaoquanshu 彙輯輿圖備考全書, which was published in the Chong-zhen 崇禎 reign. Yet a whole series of practical works, which extended to the end of Ming dynasty, formed the background to the compilation of Zhaoyuzhi, Gu Yanwu excluded the references to well-known places and persons to which literary geographical encyclopedic works at that time still paid attention. He pursued historical accuracy based on the use of historical records, and gave consideration to the contemporary problems of each region. Zhaoyuzhi embodies this new approach, and surpasses any other work of the Ming period in respect of its positivism.

The present study treats the 1577 incident involving Qiao Jishi 喬濟時 where a group of miners illegally extracting silver in the border area of Nanyang 南陽 prefecture in Henan cooperated with a religious organization in planning insurrection. In it I wish to explore the development of late Ming popular religious movements from the perspective of their historical background. Nanyang, the stage for the Qiao Jishi incident, was an area into which vagrants had moved since the middle of the Ming dynasty and, furthermore, it was an area where the illicit mining of silver was rampant. For this reason there were also persons who were not peasants among those who belonged to the local religious associations and among these were also silver miners. In this we see a novel element which had arisen from the historical background of the development of a commodity economy and the growth of the circulation of silver during the Ming dynasty. The silver miners were different from the vagrants in that they were orgenized according to principles derived from the productive activity they engaged in, a fact that made possible their organized cooperation with a religious organization. Such cooperation occurred in a period with a high frequency of religious rebellions, but the relations among groups participating in the rebellions at the end of the Ming were also, as can be seen from the example of the silver miners, a result of the social changes that had occurred during the Ming and it shows that a new historical background exited for the epochal development of popular religious rebellions at the end of the Ming dynasty.