Akihiko Takashima

Abstract Prior to the formation of amyloid fibrils, the pathological hallmark in tau-related neurodegenerative disease, tau monomers aggregate into a diverse range of oligomers. Granular tau oligomers, consisting of approximately 40 tau protein molecules, are present in the prefrontal cortex of patients at Braak stages I-II, preclinical stages of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Antibodies to granular tau oligomers as antigens have not been reported. Therefore, we generated new rat monoclonal antibodies by immunization with granular tau oligomers. Three antibodies from different hybridoma clones showed stronger immunoreactivity to granular tau oligomers and tau fibrils compared with monomeric tau. Of the three antibodies, 2D6-2C6 showed 3000-fold greater immunoreactivity in P301L-tau transgenic (rTg4510) mice than in non-transgenic mice, while MC1 antibody, which detects pathological conformations of tau, showed a 5.5-fold increase. These results suggest that 2D6-2C6 recognizes aggregates more specifically than MC1. In AD subjects, 2D6-2C6 recognized neurofibrillary tangles and pretangles, and co-localized within AT8-positive cells containing phosphorylated tau aggregates. The epitope of 2D6-2C6 is the 423–430 amino acid (AA) sequence of C-terminal regions. Taken together, a novel monoclonal antibody, 2D6-2C6, generated by immunization with granular tau oligomers binds to tau aggregates at the 423–430 AA sequence.

Intracellular tau aggregation requires a local protein concentration increase, referred to as "droplets". However, the cellular mechanism for droplet formation is poorly understood. Here, we expressed OptoTau, a P301L mutant tau fused with CRY2olig, a light-sensitive protein that can form homo-oligomers. Under blue light exposure, OptoTau increased tau phosphorylation and was sequestered in aggresomes. Suppressing aggresome formation by nocodazole formed tau granular clusters in the cytoplasm. The granular clusters disappeared by discontinuing blue light exposure or 1,6-hexanediol treatment suggesting that intracellular tau droplet formation requires microtubule collapse. Expressing OptoTau-ΔN, a species of N-terminal cleaved tau observed in the Alzheimer's disease brain, formed 1,6-hexanediol and detergent-resistant tau clusters in the cytoplasm with blue light stimulation. These intracellular stable tau clusters acted as a seed for tau fibrils in vitro. These results suggest that tau droplet formation and N-terminal cleavage are necessary for neurofibrillary tangles formation in neurodegenerative diseases.

BACKGROUND: MAPT is a causative gene in frontotemporal dementia with parkinsonism linked to chromosome 17 (FTDP-17), a hereditary degenerative disease with various clinical manifestations, including progressive supranuclear palsy, corticobasal syndrome, Parkinson's disease, and frontotemporal dementia. OBJECTIVES: To analyze genetically, biochemically, and pathologically multiple members of two families who exhibited various phenotypes of the disease. METHODS: Genetic analysis included linkage analysis, homozygosity haplotyping, and exome sequencing. We conducted tau protein microtubule polymerization assay, heparin-induced tau aggregation, and western blotting with brain lysate from an autopsy case. We also evaluated abnormal tau aggregation by using anti-tau antibody and PM-PBB3. RESULTS: We identified a variant, c.896_897insACA, p.K298_H299insQ, in the MAPT gene of affected patients. Similar to previous reports, most patients presented with atypical parkinsonism. Biochemical analysis revealed that the mutant tau protein had a reduced ability to polymerize microtubules and formed abnormal fibrous aggregates. Pathological study revealed frontotemporal lobe atrophy, midbrain atrophy, depigmentation of the substantia nigra, and four-repeat tau-positive inclusions in the hippocampus, brainstem, and spinal cord neurons. The inclusion bodies also stained positively with PM-PBB3. CONCLUSIONS: This study confirmed that the insACA mutation caused FTDP-17. The affected patients showed symptoms resembling Parkinson's disease initially and symptoms of progressive supranuclear palsy later. Despite the initial clinical diagnosis of frontotemporal dementia in the autopsy case, the spread of lesions could explain the process of progressive supranuclear palsy. The study of more cases in the future will help clarify the common pathogenesis of MAPT mutations or specific pathogeneses of each mutation.

Alzheimer's disease is a devastating disease that is accompanied by dementia, and its incidence increases with age. However, no interventions have exhibited clear therapeutic effects. We aimed to develop and characterize behavioural tasks that allow the earlier identification of signs preceding dementia that would facilitate the development of preventative and therapeutic interventions for Alzheimer's disease. To this end, we developed a 3D virtual reality task sensitive to the activity of grid cells in the entorhinal cortex, which is the region that first exhibits neurofibrillary tangles in Alzheimer's disease. We investigated path integration (assessed by error distance) in a spatial navigation task sensitive to grid cells in the entorhinal cortex in 177 volunteers, aged 20-89 years, who did not have self-reported dementia. While place memory was intact even in old age, path integration deteriorated with increasing age. To investigate the relationship between neurofibrillary tangles in the entorhinal cortex and path integration deficit, we examined a mouse model of tauopathy (P301S mutant tau-overexpressing mice; PS19 mice). At 6 months of age, PS19 mice showed a significant accumulation of phosphorylated tau only in the entorhinal cortex, associated with impaired path integration without impairments in spatial cognition. These data are consistent with the idea that path integration deficit is caused by the accumulation of phosphorylated tau in the entorhinal cortex. This method may allow the early identification of individuals likely to develop Alzheimer's disease.

Abstract Background We aimed to develop behavioral tasks that can identify early signs of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) in order to facilitate the development of preventative and therapeutic interventions. Method To do this, we created a 3D virtual reality task that is sensitive to the activity of grid cells in the entorhinal cortex, a region that is affected early on in AD. We tested path integration in a spatial navigation task in 177 volunteers between the ages of 20 and 89 who did not have a self‐diagnosed AD. Result Our results showed that the percentage of subjects showing impaired path integration correlated with the percentage of subjects showing neurofibrillary tangles in the entorhinal cortex, as seen in previously published autopsy data. To further confirm this relationship, we also tested a tauopathy mouse model and found that mice with accumulation of phosphorylated tau in the entorhinal cortex had impaired path integration without impairments in spatial cognition or novel object recognition. Conclusion These findings suggest that path integration deficit is caused by the accumulation of phosphorylated tau in the entorhinal cortex and may allow for early identification of individuals at risk for developing AD.

Abstract Several blood-based assays for phosphorylated tau (p-tau) have been developed to detect brain tau pathologies in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). However, plasma p-tau measured by currently available assays is influenced by brain amyloid and, therefore, could not accurately reflect brain tau deposits. Here, we devised a novel immunoassay that can quantify N- and C-terminally truncated p-tau fragments (mid-p-tau181) in human plasma. We measured plasma p-tau181 levels in 164 participants who underwent both amyloid and tau positron emission tomography (PET) scans using mid-p-tau181 and conventional p-tau181 assays. The mid-p-tau181 assay displayed stronger correlations with tau PET accumulation than the conventional assay in the AD continuum and accurately distinguished between tau PET-positive and -negative cases. Furthermore, the mid-p-tau181 assay demonstrated a trajectory similar to tau PET alongside cognitive decline. Consequently, our mid-p-tau181 assay could be useful in evaluating the extent of brain tau burden in AD.

Neurodegenerative diseases involving pathological tau protein aggregation are collectively known as tauopathies and include Alzheimer's disease and Pick's disease. Recent studies show that the intake of tryptophan-tyrosine (Trp-Tyr)-related β-lactopeptides, including β-lactolin, attenuates cognitive decline in the elderly and prevents the amyloid pathology in mouse models of Alzheimer's disease. However, the effects of Trp-Tyr-related β-lactopeptides on tau-related pathology have not been investigated. In the present study, we examined the effects of Trp-Tyr dipeptide intake on tauopathy in PS19 transgenic mice, a well-established tauopathy model. Intake of Trp-Tyr dipeptide improved the behavioral deficits observed in the open field test, prevented tau phosphorylation, and increased the dopamine turnover and synaptophysin expression in the frontal cortex. Levels of short-chain fatty acids in the cecum were lower in PS19 mice than those in wild-type mice and were increased by treatment with Trp-Tyr dipeptide. In addition, intake of Trp-Tyr dipeptide extended the lifespan of PS19 mice. These findings suggest that the intake of Trp-Tyr-related peptides improves tauopathy symptoms, resulting in improvements in behavioral deficits and longevity. Hence, the intake of Trp-Tyr-related peptides, including β-lactolin, may be beneficial for preventing dementia.

BACKGROUND: In Alzheimer's disease (AD), abnormally phosphorylated tau in the somatodendrite compartment of brain neurons causes synaptic loss, resulting in neuron death. Although the mechanism by which hyperphosphorylated tau appears in dendrites remains unclear, we have previously reported that local translation of tau mRNA and GSK3β mRNA in response to glutamatergic stimulation triggers an increase of tau protein and initiation of a cycle for amplification of reactivated preexisting GSK3β, respectively. In this study, we investigated the mechanism responsible for neural excitation-dependent activation of another major tau kinase, CDK5, within dendrites. METHODS: Primary hippocampal neurons were treated with glutamate and examined by in situ hybridization, immunocytochemistry and Western blotting. RESULTS: The mRNAs for both CDK5 and its neural-specific activator, p35, were found to be constitutively distributed in dendrites. Glutamate treatment induced immediate local dendritic translation of these proteins as well as conversion of p35 to p25, which forms the hyper-activated CDK5/p25 complex. This neural excitation-dependent tau phosphorylation by CDK5 was suppressed in the presence of a calpain inhibitor or a NMDA receptor antagonist. CONCLUSION: Our results indicate that in addition to an increase of dendritic tau and reactivation of preexisting GSK3β, increase and hyper-activation of CDK5 are evoked by translation of dendrite-distributed mRNAs upon NMDA receptor-mediated neural excitation. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE: Hyperphosphorylated tau with AD epitopes is locally produced in dendrites via translational activation of dendrite-distributed mRNAs in response to glutamatergic stimulation. Therefore, tau hyperphosphorylation may play a crucial role in synaptic transduction.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the accumulation of extracellular amyloid-beta peptides (Aβ) resulting in senile plaques and intracellular hyperphosphorylated tau protein resulting in neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). Mucuna beans (Mucuna pruriences (L.) DC. var. utilis) are unique plants containing 3-9% L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA). Here we investigated the effect of the administration of Mucuna beans on AD prevention by feeding triple-transgenic mice (3 × Tg-AD mice) with a diet containing Mucuna beans for 13 months. The levels of Aβ oligomers and detergent-insoluble phosphorylated tau decreased in the brain of mice fed with Mucuna beans (Mucuna group) compared to those of the Control group. Aβ accumulation and phosphorylated tau accumulation in the brain in the Mucuna group were also reduced. In addition, administration of Mucuna beans improved cognitive function. These results suggest that administration of Mucuna beans may have a preventive effect on AD development in 3 × Tg-AD mice.

<title>Abstract</title>The role of oligodendrocyte lineage cells, the largest glial population in the adult central nervous system (CNS), in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) remains elusive. Here, we developed a culture method for adult oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (aOPCs). Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) promotes survival and proliferation of NG2⁺ aOPCs in a serum-free defined medium; a subpopulation (~5%) of plexin-B3⁺ aOPCs was also found. FGF2 withdrawal decreased NG2⁺, but increased plexin-B3⁺ aOPCs and Aβ1-42 secretion. Plexin-B3⁺ aOPCs were distributed throughout the adult rat brain, although less densely than NG2⁺ aOPCs. Spreading depolarization induced delayed cortical plexin-B3⁺ aOPC gliosis in the ipsilateral remote cortex. Furthermore, extracellular Aβ1-42 accumulation was occasionally found around plexin-B3⁺ aOPCs near the lesions. In AD brains, virtually all cortical SPs were immunostained for plexin-B3, and plexin-B3 levels increased significantly in the Sarkosyl-soluble fractions. These findings suggest that plexin-B3⁺ aOPCs may play essential roles in AD pathogenesis, as natural Aβ-secreting cells.

<title>Abstract</title> The simultaneous accumulation of multiple pathological proteins, such as hyperphosphorylated tau (hp-tau) and phosphorylated α-synuclein (p-αSyn), has been reported in the brains of patients with various neurodegenerative diseases. We previously demonstrated that hp-tau-dependent p-αSyn accumulation was associated with the activation of GSK-3β in the brains of P301L tau transgenic mice. To confirm the effects of another mutant tau on p-αSyn accumulation in vivo, we herein examined the brains of PS19 mice that overexpress human P301S mutant tau. Immunohistochemically, hp-tau and p-αSyn aggregates were detected in the same neuronal cells in the cerebrum and brain stem of aged PS19 mice. A semiquantitative analysis showed a positive correlation between hp-tau and p-αSyn accumulation. Furthermore, an activated form of GSK-3β was detected within cells containing both hp-tau and p-αSyn aggregates in PS19 mice. Western blotting showed a decrease in inactivated PP2A levels in PS19 mice. The present results suggest that the overexpression of human P301S mutant tau induces p-αSyn accumulation that is accompanied by not only GSK-3β, but also PP2A activation in PS19 mice, and highlight the synergic effects between tau and αSyn in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases that show the codeposition of tau and αSyn.

Accumulation of microtubule-associated tau protein is thought to cause neuron loss in a group of neurodegenerative diseases called tauopathies. In diseased brains, tau molecules adopt pathological structures that propagate into insoluble forms with disease-specific patterns. Several types of posttranslational modifications in tau are known to modulate its aggregation propensity in vitro, but their influence on tau accumulation and toxicity at the whole-organism level has not been fully elucidated. Herein, we utilized a series of transgenic Drosophila models to compare systematically the toxicity induced by five tau constructs with mutations or deletions associated with aggregation, including substitutions at seven disease-associated phosphorylation sites (S7A and S7E), deletions of PHF6 and PHF6* sequences (ΔPHF6 and ΔPHF6*), and substitutions of cysteine residues in the microtubule binding repeats (C291/322A). We found that substitutions and deletions resulted in different patterns of neurodegeneration and accumulation, with C291/322A having a dramatic effect on both tau accumulation and neurodegeneration. These cysteines formed disulfide bonds in mouse primary cultured neurons and in the fly retina, and stabilized tau proteins. Additionally, they contributed to tau accumulation under oxidative stress. We also found that each of these cysteine residues contributes to the microtubule polymerization rate and microtubule levels at equilibrium, but none of them affected tau binding to polymerized microtubules. Since tau proteins expressed in the Drosophila retina are mostly present in the early stages of tau filaments self-assembly, our results suggest that disulfide bond formation by these cysteine residues could be attractive therapeutic targets.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by the accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) as senile plaques and cerebral amyloid angiopathy, and hyperphosphorylated tau (hp-tau) as neurofibrillary tangles in the brain. The AD-related pathology has been reported in several non-human animals, and most animals develop only the Aβ or tau pathology. We herein describe the Aβ and hp-tau pathology in the brains of aged pinniped species (seal, sea lion, and walrus). Molecular analyses revealed that the sequence of pinniped Aβ was identical to that of human Aβ. Histopathological examinations detected argyrophilic plaques composed of Aβ associated with dystrophic neurites in the cerebral cortex of aged pinnipeds. Astrogliosis and microglial infiltration were identified around Aβ plaques. Aβ deposits were observed in the blood vessel walls of the meninges and cerebrum. Pinniped tau protein was physiologically subjected to alternative splicing at exons 2, 3, and 10, and presented as five isoforms: two 3-repeat tau isoforms (1N3R, 2N3R) and three 4-repeat tau isoforms (0N4R, 1N4R, 2N4R); 0N3R tau isoform was absent. Histopathological examinations revealed argyrophilic fibrillar aggregates composed of hp-tau in the neuronal somata and neurites of aged pinniped brains. Few hp-tau aggregates were found in oligodendrocytes and microglia. Biochemically, hp-tau of the 3-repeat and 4-repeat isoforms was detected in brain sarkosyl-insoluble fractions. Aβ and hp-tau both predominantly accumulated in the neocortex, particularly the frontal cortex. Furthermore, the activation of GSK-3β was detected within cells containing hp-tau aggregates, and activated GSK-3β was strongly expressed in cases with severe hp-tau pathologies. The present results suggest that, in association with Aβ deposition, the activation of GSK-3β contributes to hp-tau accumulation in pinniped brains. Here, we report that pinniped species naturally accumulate Aβ and tau with aging, similar to the human AD pathology.

Glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK-3β) is a therapeutic target for various age-related neurodegenerative diseases. It is linked to the two main pathological features of Alzheimer's disease (AD), tau and amyloid β (Aβ); GSK-3β is a major candidate to pathologically hyperphosphorylate tau and modulate Aβ production. However, inhibition of GSK-3β in clinical studies in humans has been found to not significantly improve cognitive function of AD patients, prompting us to study the physiological role of GSK-3β in old mice. Using a contextual fear-conditioning paradigm, we now report that old gsk-3β+/- mice are deficient in both short-term and long-term memory formation, suggesting that GSK-3β is required for memory formation at old age. Biochemical and immunohistochemical analyses showed that the number of synapses does not differ between gsk-3β+/- and age-matched wild-type (wt) littermate mice. Based on these observations, we propose that, GSK-3β may contribute to help maintain brain function during aging. Our results may explain the poor efficacy of GSK-3β inhibitors in preserving memory capacity in AD patients.

With the rapid increase in aging populations worldwide, there has been an increase in demand for preventive and therapeutic measures for age-related cognitive decline and dementia. Epidemiological studies show that consumption of dairy products reduces the risk for cognitive decline and dementia in the elderly. We have previously demonstrated in randomized trials that the consumption of β-lactolin, a whey-derived Gly-Thr-Trp-Tyr lactotetrapeptide, improves cognitive function in older adults. Orally administered β-lactolin is delivered to the brain and inhibits monoamine oxidase, resulting in alleviation of memory impairment. However, there is currently no evidence of the effects of long-term β-lactolin intake on aging. Here, we found that the discrimination index in the novel object recognition test for object recognition memory was reduced in mice aged 20 months compared with that in young mice, indicating that age-related cognitive decline was induced in the aged mice; in aged mice fed β-lactolin for 3 months, memory impairment was subsequently alleviated. In aged mice, impairment of light/dark activity cycles was found to be induced, which was subsequently alleviated by β-lactolin consumption. Additionally, the number of activated microglia in the hippocampus and cortex and the production of cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α, macrophage inflammatory protein-1α, and macrophage chemoattractant protein-1) were increased in aged mice compared with those in young mice but were reduced in aged mice fed β-lactolin. The age-related hippocampal atrophy was improved in aged mice fed β-lactolin. Cytochrome c levels in the hippocampus and cortex were increased in aged mice compared with those in young mice but were also reduced by β-lactolin consumption. These results suggest that β-lactolin consumption prevents neural inflammation and alleviates aging-related cognitive decline.

The prevention of age-related cognitive decline and dementia is becoming a high priority because of the rapid growth of aging populations. We have previously shown that hop bitter acids such as iso-α-acids (IAAs) and matured hop bitter acids (MHBAs) activate the vagus nerve and improve memory impairment. Moreover, supplements with MHBAs were shown to improve memory retrieval in older adults. However, the underlying mechanisms have not been entirely elucidated. We aimed to investigate the effects of MHBAs and the common β-tricarbonyl moiety on memory impairment induced by the activation of microglia and the loss of the noradrenergic system. MHBAs and a model compound with β-tricarbonyl moiety were administered to LPS-inoculated mice and 5 × FAD Alzheimer's disease (AD) model mice, following the evaluation in behavioral tests and microglial activation. To evaluate the association of noradrenaline with MHBAs effects, mice treated with N-(2-chloroethyl)-N-ethyl-2-bromobenzylamine (DSP-4), a noradrenergic neurotoxin that selectively damages noradrenergic projections from the locus coeruleus, were subjected to the behavioral evaluation. MHBAs reduced brain inflammation and improved LPS-induced memory impairment. A model compound possessing the β-tricarbonyl moiety improved the LPS-induced memory impairment and neuronal loss via the vagus nerve. Additionally, the protective effects of MHBAs on memory impairment were attenuated by noradrenaline depletion using DSP-4. MHBAs suppressed the activation of microglia and improved the memory impairment in 5 × FAD mice, which was also attenuated by noradrenaline depletion. Treatment with MHBAs increased cholecystokinin production from the intestinal cells. Generally, cholecystokinin activates the vagal nerve, which stimulate the noradrenergic neuron in the locus ceruleus. Taken together, our results reveal that food ingredients such as hop bitter acids with a β-tricarbonyl moiety suppress microglial activation and improve memory impairment induced by inflammation or AD pathology via the activation of the gut-brain axis and noradrenergic system. Supplements with hop bitter acids, including MHBAs, might be a novel approach for the prevention of cognitive decline and dementia.

The molecular mechanism responsible for hyperphosphorylated tau accumulation in dendrites of Alzheimer's disease (AD) neurons has not been fully clarified. Recently, we reported that tau mRNA is distributed into dendrites, and that translation and phosphorylation of tau protein are immediately enhanced in response to glutamatergic stimulation. Here, we focused on dendritic glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β), a key enzyme for tau phosphorylation, and investigated the mechanism responsible for the neural stimulation-induced hyperphosphorylation of the newly translated dendritic tau protein. We found that GSK3β mRNA was also distributed into dendrites of cultured hippocampal neurons, and that a glutamate-dependent slight increase of translation occurred in a short time. Concomitantly, dephosphorylation at the Ser9 residue of the preexisting GSK3β, which reactivates this kinase, was strongly induced without an increase of its phosphatase PP1 or a decrease of the PP1 inhibitor I-2. Instead, I-2 phosphorylation was observed, suggesting disinhibition of PP1. This glutamate-dependent phosphorylation of I-2 and the dephosphorylation of preexisting GSK3β were abolished in the presence of GSK3β inhibitors. Interestingly, translational obstruction of GSK3β mRNA also canceled these reactions. These results indicate that dendrites exhibit a glutamate-responsive cycle for amplification of reactivated preexisting GSK3β operating via PP1 disinhibition, whose activation requires neural activity-dependent translation of dendritic GSK3β mRNA. This would explain why a slight increase of dendritic GSK3β is sufficient to trigger hyperphosphorylation of significantly increased tau protein.

Neurodegenerative diseases are characterized by the accumulation of specific phosphorylated protein aggregates in the brain, such as hyperphosphorylated tau (hp-tau) in tauopathies and phosphorylated α-synuclein (p-αSyn) in α-synucleinopathies. The simultaneous accumulation of different proteins is a common event in many neurodegenerative diseases. We herein describe the detection of the phosphorylation and dimerization of αSyn and activation of GSK-3β, a major kinase known to phosphorylate tau and αSyn, in the brains of rTg4510 mice that overexpress human P301L mutant tau. Immunohistochemistry showed p-αSyn aggregates in rTg4510 mice, which were suppressed by doxycycline-mediated decreases in mutant tau expression levels. A semi-quantitative analysis revealed a regional correlation between hp-tau and p-αSyn accumulation in rTg4510 mice. Furthermore, proteinase K-resistant αSyn aggregates were found in the region with excessive hp-tau accumulation in rTg4510 mice, and these aggregates were morphologically different from proteinase K-susceptible p-αSyn aggregates. Western blotting revealed decreases in p-αSyn monomers in TBS- and sarkosyl-soluble fractions and increases in ubiquitinated p-αSyn dimers in sarkosyl-soluble and insoluble fractions in rTg4510 mice. Furthermore, an activated form of GSK-3β was immunohistochemically detected within cells containing both hp-tau and p-αSyn aggregates. A semi-quantitative analysis revealed that increased GSK-3β activity strongly correlated with hp-tau and p-αSyn accumulation in rTg4510 mice. Collectively, the present results suggest that the overexpression of human P301L mutant tau promoted the phosphorylation and dimerization of endogenous αSyn by activating GSK-3β in rTg4510 mice. This synergic effect between tau, αSyn, and GSK-3β may be involved in the pathophysiology of several neurodegenerative diseases that show the accumulation of both tau and αSyn.

Microtubule-associated protein tau is characterized by the fact that it is an intrinsically disordered protein due to its lack of a stable conformation and high flexibility. Intracellular inclusions of fibrillar forms of tau with a β-sheet structure accumulate in the brain of patients with Alzheimer's disease and other tauopathies. Accordingly, detachment of tau from microtubules and transition of tau from a disordered state to an abnormally aggregated state are essential events preceding the onset of tau-related diseases. Many reports have shown that this transition is caused by post-translational modifications, including hyperphosphorylation and acetylation. The misfolded tau is self-assembled and forms a tau oligomer before the appearance of tau inclusions. Animal and pathological studies using human samples have demonstrated that tau oligomer formation contributes to neuronal loss. During the progression of tauopathies, tau seeds are released from cells and incorporated into other cells, leading to the propagation of pathological tau aggregation. Accumulating evidence suggests several potential approaches for blocking tau-mediated toxicity: (1) direct inhibition of pathological tau aggregation and (2) inhibition of tau post-translational modifications that occur prior to pathological tau aggregation, (3) inhibition of tau propagation and (4) stabilization of microtubules. In addition to traditional low-molecular-weight compounds, newer drug discovery approaches such as the development of medium-molecular-weight drugs (peptide- or oligonucleotide-based drugs) and high-molecular-weight drugs (antibody-based drugs) provide alternative pathways to preventing the formation of abnormal tau. Of particular interest are recent studies suggesting that tau droplet formation by liquid-liquid phase separation may be the initial step in aberrant tau aggregation, as well results that implicate roles for tau in dendritic and nuclear functions. Here, we review the mechanisms through which drugs can target tau and consider recent clinical trials for the treatment of tauopathies. In addition, we discuss the utility of these newer strategies and propose future directions for research on tau-targeted therapeutics.

The prevention of age-related memory decline and dementia has been becoming a high priority because of the rapid growth in aging populations. Accumulating epidemiological and clinical studies indicate that intake of fermented dairy products rich in β-lactolin improves memory retrieval and executive function and attenuates cognitive decline in the elderly. However, the effects of long-term consumption of β-lactolin on Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathologies have not been investigated. In the present study, we examined the effects of β-lactolin and whey digestion rich in β-lactolin on AD pathology in 5×FAD transgenic mice and PS19 tauopathy mice. Intake of β-lactolin and whey digestion rich in β-lactolin reduced the levels of inflammatory cytokines, suppressed the infiltration of activated microglia, decreased the levels of amyloid-β, ameliorated impaired long-term object memory, and attenuated decreased synaptophysin, dopamine, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and insulin-like growth factor 1 levels in the cortex in 5×FAD transgenic mice. In addition, intake of β-lactolin and whey digestion rich in β-lactolin improved behavioral abnormality and reduced the ratio of phosphorylated tau to total tau in the cortex in PS19 tauopathy mice. These findings indicate that consumption with β-lactolin and whey digestion rich in β-lactolin suppresses inflammation and attenuates AD pathology and cognitive impairment.

Tau is a microtubule (MT)-associated protein that is localized to the axon. In Alzheimer's disease, the distribution of tau undergoes a remarkable alteration, leading to the formation of tau inclusions in the somatodendritic compartment. To investigate how this mislocalization occurs, we recently developed immunohistochemical tools that can separately detect endogenous mouse and exogenous human tau with high sensitivity, which allows us to visualize not only the pathological but also the pre-aggregated tau in mouse brain tissues of both sexes. Using these antibodies, we found that in tau-transgenic mouse brains, exogenous human tau was abundant in dendrites and somata even in the presymptomatic period, whereas the axonal localization of endogenous mouse tau was unaffected. In stark contrast, exogenous tau was properly localized to the axon in human tau knock-in mice. We tracked this difference to the temporal expression patterns of tau. Endogenous mouse tau and exogenous human tau in human tau knock-in mice exhibited high expression levels during the neonatal period and strong suppression into the adulthood. However, human tau in transgenic mice was expressed continuously and at high levels in adult animals. These results indicated the uncontrolled expression of exogenous tau beyond the developmental period as a cause of mislocalization in the transgenic mice. Superresolution microscopic and biochemical analyses also indicated that the interaction between MTs and exogenous tau was impaired only in the tau-transgenic mice, but not in knock-in mice. Thus, the ectopic expression of tau may be critical for its somatodendritic mislocalization, a key step of the tauopathy.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Somatodendritic localization of tau may be an early step leading to the neuronal degeneration in tauopathies. However, the mechanisms of the normal axonal distribution of tau and the mislocalization of pathological tau remain obscure. Our immunohistochemical and biochemical analyses demonstrated that the endogenous mouse tau is transiently expressed in neonatal brains, that exogenous human tau expressed corresponding to such tau expression profile can distribute into the axon, and that the constitutive expression of tau into adulthood (e.g., human tau in transgenic mice) results in abnormal somatodendritic localization. Thus, the expression profile of tau is tightly associated with the localization of tau, and the ectopic expression of tau in matured neurons may be involved in the pathogenesis of tauopathy.

© 2019 Elsevier Ltd (R,S)-Isoproterenol inhibits the formation of toxic granular tau oligomers associated with neuronal loss and development of cognitive disorders, and is an attractive drug candidate for Alzheimer's disease. To elucidate its behavior in the brain by positron emission tomography, we synthesize (R,S)-[11C]isoproterenol by reductive alkylation of (R,S)-norepinephrine with [2-11C]acetone, which was in turn synthesized in situ under improved conditions afforded a decay-corrected radiochemical yield of 54%. The reductive alkylation using NaBH(OAc)3 as reducing agent in the presence of benzoic acid in DMSO/DMF (60:40 v/v) at 100 °C for 10 min gave (R,S)-[11C]isoproterenol in an 87% radio-high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analytical yield. HPLC separation using a strong cation exchange column, followed by pharmaceutical formulation in the presence of D/L-tartaric acid, afforded (R,S)-[11C]isoproterenol with a total radioactivity of 2.0 ± 0.2 GBq, a decay-corrected radiochemical yield of 19 ± 2%, chemical and radiochemical purities of 71% and >99%, respectively, and a molar activity of 100 ± 13 GBq/μmol (n = 3). The overall synthesis time from the end of the bombardment to pharmaceutical formulation was 48 min. A preliminary preclinical PET study in a rat demonstrated the potential of the radioligand for the evaluation of the penetration of (R,S)-isoproterenol in human brain.

Alzheimer's disease pathology is characterized by extracellular deposits of amyloid-β (Aβ) and intracellular inclusions of hyperphosphorylated tau. Although genetic studies of familial Alzheimer's disease suggest a causal link between Aβ and disease symptoms, the failure of various Aβ-targeted strategies to slow or halt disease progression has led to consideration of the idea that inhibition of tau aggregation might be a more promising therapeutic approach. Methylene blue (MB), which inhibits tau aggregation and rescue memory deficits in a mouse model of tauopathy, however, lacked efficacy in a recent Phase III clinical trial. In order to gain insight into this failure, the present study was designed to examine the mechanism through which MB inhibits tau aggregation. We found that MB inhibits heparin-induced tau aggregation in vitro, as measured by thioflavin T fluorescence. Further, MB reduced the amount of tau in precipitants recovered after ultracentrifugation of the aggregation mixture. Atomic force microscopy revealed that MB reduces the number of tau fibrils but increases the number of granular tau oligomers. The latter result was confirmed by sucrose gradient centrifugation: MB treatment was associated with higher levels of granular tau oligomers (fraction 3) and lower levels of tau fibrils (fractions 5 and 6). We previously demonstrated that the formation of granular tau oligomers, rather than tau fibrils, is essential for neuronal death. Thus, the fact that MB actions are limited to inhibition of tau fibril formation provides a mechanistic explanation for the poor performance of MB in the recent Phase III clinical trial.

<p>Some epidemiological studies revealed that the consumption of dairy products prevents cognitive decline in the elderly. We previously demonstrated that tryptophan-tyrosine (WY)-peptide rich in Camembert cheese suppresses microglial inflammation. In the present study, 7-week-old (young) and 68-week-old (aged) C57BL/6J mice were fed diet containing WY-peptide. After 4 months of feeding, mice were subjected to behavioral evaluations of the Y-maze test and the novel object recognition test (NORT), which were decreased in aged mice compared to young mice, but those in aged mice with WY-peptide were improved. The levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and glutamate in the hippocampus of aged mice were higher compared to young mice, while they were decreased by WY-peptide. These results suggest that WY-peptide consumptions suppress microglial inflammation in the hippocampus, resulting in memory improvement. Aged mice orally given WY-peptide or whey peptide rich in WY-peptide for shorter term (18 days) also improved the memory impairment. The present study demonstrated that long-term or short-term consumption of WY-peptide is beneficial for age-related memory impairment.</p>

The accumulation of tau filaments in neurons is a pathological hallmark of various neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease. However, it is not the filamentous aggregates themselves, but non-filamentous tau species, tau oligomer, that is thought to be the culprit in tau-mediated neurodegeneration. The definition of and methodology for isolating tau oligomers vary among researchers. Here we describe how tau oligomers are identified, summarize the differences of tau oligomers among research groups, and discuss their hypothesized functions.

Due to the growth in aging populations, prevention for cognitive decline and dementia are in great demand. We previously demonstrated that the consumption of iso-α-acids (IAA), the hop-derived bitter compounds in beer, prevents inflammation and Alzheimer’s disease pathology in model mice. However, the effects of iso-α-acids on inflammation induced by other agents aside from amyloid β have not been investigated. In this study, we demonstrated that the consumption of iso-α-acids suppressed microglial inflammation in the frontal cortex of rTg4510 tauopathy mice. In addition, the levels of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, including IL-1β and MIP-1β, in the frontal cortex of rTg4510 mice were greater than those of wild-type mice, and were reduced in rTg4510 mice fed with iso-α-acids. Flow cytometry analysis demonstrated that the expression of cells producing CD86, CD68, TSPO, MIP-1α, TNF-α, and IL-1β in microglia was increased in rTg4510 mice compared with wild-type mice. Furthermore, the expression of CD86- and MIP-1α-producing cells was reduced in rTg4510 mice administered with iso-α-acids. Moreover, the consumption of iso-α-acids reduced the levels of phosphorylated tau in the frontal cortex. Collectively, these results suggest that the consumption of iso-α-acids prevents the inflammation induced in tauopathy mice. Thus, iso-α-acids may help in preventing inflammation-related brain disorders.

Hippocampal hyperactivity, ascribed to amyloid ß (Aß)-induced imbalances in neural excitation and inhibition, is found in patients with mild cognitive impairment, a prodromal stage of Alzheimer's disease (AD). To better understand the relationship between hippocampal hyperactivity and the molecular triggers of behavioral impairments in AD, we used Mn-enhanced MRI (MEMRI) to assess neuronal activity after subjecting mice to a task requiring spatial learning and memory. Depletion of endogenous tau in an amyloid precursor protein (APP) transgenic (J20) mouse line was shown to ameliorate hippocampal hyperactivity in J20 animals, tau depletion failed to reverse memory deficits associated with APP/Aβ overproduction. On the other hand, deletion of tau alleviated the hyperlocomotion displayed by APP transgenics, suggesting that the functional effects of Aß-tau interactions reflect the temporal appearance of these molecules in individual brain areas.

The risk of schizophrenia is increased in offspring whose mothers experience malnutrition during pregnancy. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are dietary components that are crucial for the structural and functional integrity of neural cells, and PUFA deficiency has been shown to be a risk factor for schizophrenia. Here, we show that gestational and early postnatal dietary deprivation of two PUFAs-arachidonic acid (AA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)-elicited schizophrenia-like phenotypes in mouse offspring at adulthood. In the PUFA-deprived mouse group, we observed lower motivation and higher sensitivity to a hallucinogenic drug resembling the prodromal symptoms in schizophrenia. Furthermore, a working-memory task-evoked hyper-neuronal activity in the medial prefrontal cortex was also observed, along with the downregulation of genes in the prefrontal cortex involved in oligodendrocyte integrity and the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-ergic system. Regulation of these genes was mediated by the nuclear receptor genes Rxr and Ppar, whose promoters were hyper-methylated by the deprivation of dietary AA and DHA. In addition, the RXR agonist bexarotene upregulated oligodendrocyte-and GABA-related gene expression and suppressed the sensitivity of mice to the hallucinogenic drug. Notably, the expression of these nuclear receptor genes were also downregulated in hair-follicle cells from schizophrenia patients. These results suggest that PUFA deficiency during the early neurodevelopmental period in mice could model the prodromal state of schizophrenia through changes in the epigenetic regulation of nuclear receptor genes.

The E693 Delta (Osaka) mutation in APP is linked to familial Alzheimer's disease. While this mutation accelerates amyloid beta (A beta) oligomerization, only patient homozygotes suffer from dementia, implying that this mutation is recessive and causes loss-of-function of amyloid precursor protein (APP). To investigate the recessive trait, we generated a new mouse model by knocking-in the Osaka mutation into endogenous mouse APP. The produced homozygous, heterozygous, and non-knockin littermates were compared for memory, neuropathology, and synaptic plasticity. Homozygotes showed memory impairment at 4 months, whereas heterozygotes did not, even at 8 months. Immunohistochemical and biochemical analyses revealed that only homozygotes displayed intraneuronal accumulation of A beta oligomers at 8 months, followed by abnormal tau phosphorylation, synapse loss, glial activation, and neuron loss. These pathologies were not observed at younger ages, suggesting that a certain mechanism other than A beta accumulation underlies the memory disturbance at 4 months. For the electrophysiology studies at 4 months, high-frequency stimulation evoked long-term potentiation in all mice in the presence of picrotoxin, but in the absence of picrotoxin, such potentiation was observed only in homozygotes, suggesting their GABAergic deficit. In support of this, the levels of GABA-related proteins and the number of dentate GABAergic interneurons were decreased in 4-month-old homozygotes. Since APP has been shown to play a role in dentate GABAergic synapse formation, the observed GABAergic depletion is likely associated with an impairment of the APP function presumably caused by the Osaka mutation. Oral administration of diazepam to homozygotes from 6 months improved memory at 8 months, and furthermore, prevented A beta oligomer accumulation, indicating that GABAergic deficiency is a cause of memory impairment and also a driving force of A beta accumulation. Our findings suggest that the Osaka mutation causes loss of APP function, leading to GABAergic depletion and memory disorder when wild-type APP is absent, providing a mechanism of the recessive heredity.

Tau is a major component of the neurofibrillary tangles (NFT) that represent a pathological hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Although generally considered an axonal protein, Tau is found in the somato-dendritic compartment of degenerating neurons and this redistribution is thought to be a trigger of neurodegeneration in AD. Here, we show the presence of tau mRNA in a dendritic ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex that includes Ca2(+)-calmodulin dependent protein kinase (CaMK)II alpha mRNA and that is translated locally in response to glutamate stimulation. Further, we show that TaumRNA is a component of mRNP granules that contain RNA-binding proteins, and that it interacts with Myosin Va, a postsynaptic motor protein; these findings suggest that tau mRNA is transported into dendritic spines. We also report that tau mRNA localized in the somato-dendritic component of primary hippocampal cells and that a sub-toxic concentration of glutamate enhances local translation and hyperphosphorylation of tau, effects that are blocked by the gluatamatergic antagonists MK801 and NBQX. These data thus demonstrate that alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid (AMPA) and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) stimulation redistributes tau to the somato-dendritic region of neurons where it may trigger neurodegeneration. (C) 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Alongside the rapid growth in aging populations worldwide, prevention and therapy for age-related memory decline and dementia are in great demand to maintain a long, healthy life. Here we found that iso--acids, hop-derived bitter compounds in beer, enhance microglial phagocytosis and suppress inflammation via activation of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor . In normal mice, oral administration of iso--acids led to a significant increase both in CD11b and CD206 double-positive anti-inflammatory type microglia (p &lt; 0.05) and in microglial phagocytosis in the brain. In Alzheimer's model 5xFAD mice, oral administration of iso--acids resulted in a 21% reduction in amyloid in the cerebral cortex as observed by immunohistochemical analysis, a significant reduction in inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1 and chemokines including macrophage inflammatory protein-1 in the cerebral cortex (p &lt; 0.05) and a significant improvement in a novel object recognition test (p &lt; 0.05), as compared with control-fed 5xFAD mice. The differences in iso--acid-fed mice were due to the induction of microglia to an anti-inflammatory phenotype. The present study is the first to report that amyloid deposition and inflammation are suppressed in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease by a single component, iso--acids, via the regulation of microglial activation. The suppression of neuroinflammation and improvement in cognitive function suggests that iso--acids contained in beer may be useful for the prevention of dementia.

Sleep-disordered breathing produces cognitive impairments, and is possibly associated with Alzheimer disease (AD). Intermittent hypoxia treatment (IHT), an experimental model for sleep-disordered breathing, results in cognitive impairments in animals via unknown mechanisms. Here, we exposed mice to IHT protocols, and performed biochemical analyses and microarray analyses regarding their hippocampal samples. In particular, we performed gene ontology (GO)based microarray analysis to elucidate effects of IHT on hippocampal functioning, which were compared with the effects of various previously-reported experimental conditions on that (ref. Gene Expression Omnibus, The National Center for Biotechnology Information). Our microarray analyses revealed that IHT and aging shared alterations in some common GO, which were also observed with kainic acid treatment, Dicer ablation, or moderate glutamate excess. Mapping the altered genes using the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes PATHWAY database indicated that IHT and aging affected several pathways including "MAPK signaling pathway", "PI3K-Akt signaling pathway", and "glutamatergic synapse". Consistent with the gene analyses, in vivo analyses revealed that IHT increased phosphorylated tau, reflecting an imbalance of kinases and/or phosphatases, and reduced proteins relevant to glutamatergic synapses. In addition, IHT increased phosphorylated p70 S6 kinase, indicating involvement of the mammalian target of rapamycin signaling pathway. Furthermore, IHT mice demonstrated hyperactivity in Y-maze tests, which was also observed in AD models. We obtained important data or something from the massive amount of microarray data, and confirmed the validity by in vivo analyses: the IHT-induced cognitive impairment may be partially explained by the fact that IHT increases phosphorylated tau via biological processes common to aging. Moreover, as aging is a major risk factor for AD, IHT is a novel model for investigating the pathological processes contributing to AD onset.

Fused in sarcoma (FUS) and splicing factor, proline- and glutamine-rich (SFPQ) are RNA binding proteins that regulate RNA metabolism. We found that alternative splicing of the Mapt gene at exon 10, which generates 4-repeat tau (4R-T) and 3-repeat tau (3R-T), is regulated by interactions between FUS and SFPQ in the nuclei of neurons. Hippocampus-specific FUS- or SFPQ-knockdown mice exhibit frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD)-like behaviors, reduced adult neurogenesis, accumulation of phosphorylated tau, and hippocampal atrophy with neuronal loss through an increased 4R-T/3R-T ratio. Normalization of this increased ratio by 4R-T-specific silencing results in recovery of the normal phenotype. These findings suggest a biological link among FUS/SFPQ, tau isoform alteration, and phenotypic expression, which may function in the early pathomechanism of FTLD.